diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index 92a0fe1..89d1eba 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -35,6 +35,8 @@ source loading uses the supplied `io.Io` for opening, reading, and closing files
 
 a recursive example is in [programs/factorial.hon](programs/factorial.hon); `./build/honey run programs/factorial.hon` prints `120`.
 
+an iterative example is in [programs/iterative_factorial.hon](programs/iterative_factorial.hon); `./build/honey run programs/iterative_factorial.hon` also prints `120`.
+
 the parser supports arithmetic expressions with nested parenthesized groups, such as `a + (b - c) * 2 / 3`. groups control precedence without adding AST nodes; inner expression spans exclude the grouping parentheses. parsing accepts integer division syntax, but type checking requires float operands for `/`.
 
 function calls are postfix expressions: `f()`, `f(a, b)`, and `factory()(x)`. calls bind tighter than unary and binary arithmetic and can appear in initializers or as expression statements inside function bodies. argument lists allow a trailing comma; newlines remain statement boundaries. type checking validates callable values, argument counts and argument types.
@@ -43,7 +45,11 @@ function calls are postfix expressions: `f()`, `f(a, b)`, and `factory()(x)`. ca
 
 `if`/`else` supports braced arms, single statements and `else if` chains. conditions must have type `bool`. a braceless guard requires parentheses unless it is a function call: `if (n <= 1) return 1` or `if ready() return`. `else` binds to the nearest `if`; after a braced arm it may start on the next line. branches are represented as AST blocks even when braceless.
 
-name resolution (`@source/sema`) runs after parsing. it predeclares package names and each block's direct locals, allowing forward references and mutually recursive functions. parameters and top-level function-body locals share a scope; each conditional arm introduces a child scope whose names do not escape it. signatures resolve names in the enclosing package scope. shadowing is forbidden, including reuse of builtin type names (`int`, `float`, `bool`, `string`, `void`); sibling function and arm scopes may independently reuse names.
+`name = expression` updates a local `:=` binding. `::` bindings, parameters, named functions, builtin types and globals are not assignment targets. the established binding type is preserved: assignment inputs do not widen or infer that type, though numeric literals can adopt its float context. function-valued locals accept replacement functions with the same parameter and result types.
+
+`while` repeats a block or single statement while its `bool` condition holds, re-evaluating the condition on every iteration. guards follow the same braced/braceless convention as `if`. loop bodies introduce child scopes; their locals, including locals in nested conditional arms, begin uninitialized on each scope entry.
+
+name resolution (`@source/sema`) runs after parsing. it predeclares package names and each block's direct locals, allowing forward references and mutually recursive functions. parameters and top-level function-body locals share a scope; each conditional arm and loop body introduces a child scope whose names do not escape it. signatures resolve names in the enclosing package scope. shadowing is forbidden, including reuse of builtin type names (`int`, `float`, `bool`, `string`, `void`); sibling scopes may independently reuse names.
 
 `sema.resolve` returns an owned binding table indexed by AST `NodeId`, without modifying the AST. `sema.binding` identifies a declaration, builtin type, or invalid binding carrying its diagnostic ID; nodes with no binding return `.none`. release the result with `sema.deinit`. unknown names and duplicate declarations add source-spanned diagnostics; invalid syntax retains its existing diagnostic identity. same-scope duplicates retain the first declaration for recovery, while forbidden inner declarations invalidate that name's uses rather than silently binding them to an outer declaration.
 
@@ -51,10 +57,10 @@ type checking (`@source/sema/check`) runs after name resolution. `check.check` b
 
 numeric typing follows contextual rules within Honey's current `int` and `float` families. integer literals can adopt either family; float literals remain float. numeric demands propagate through arithmetic and inferred bindings before undemanded integers default to `int`. conflicting demands are errors; fixed `int` values do not implicitly convert to `float`. `+`, `-`, `*` and unary `-` require compatible numeric operands; `/` requires and supplies float context. `3 / 2`, `3.0 / 2`, and `ratio float :: 3 / 2` are valid; division involving fixed `int` values requires explicit conversion.
 
-type errors carry source spans and diagnostic identities; invalid operands propagate their existing identity without duplicate errors, while independent expressions, arguments and conditional arms are still checked. inference cycles without a type anchor are diagnosed. function signatures are checked independently of their bodies. bare `return` and same-line `return expression` are supported inside function bodies and must match the declared result type. nonvoid return-path checking is structural: every path must return or terminate in a diagnostic trap, and both conditional successors are considered without constant folding. a missing `else` permits fallthrough, even for a literal `true` condition; a later return can close that path. statements after a return and untaken branches are still type-checked but are not executed.
+type errors carry source spans and diagnostic identities; invalid operands propagate their existing identity without duplicate errors, while independent expressions, arguments and nested bodies are still checked. inference cycles without a type anchor are diagnosed. function signatures are checked independently of their bodies. bare `return` and same-line `return expression` are supported inside function bodies and must match the declared result type. nonvoid return-path checking is structural: every path must return or terminate in a diagnostic trap, and both conditional successors are considered without constant folding. a missing `else` or a loop permits fallthrough, even for a literal `true` condition; a later return can close that path. statements after a return and untaken branches or loops are still type-checked but are not executed.
 
-`lower.lower` turns the checked AST and binding table into an owned `@source/ir` module. functions, globals, local slots and instruction-result temporaries have explicit IDs; typed instructions execute in source evaluation order and basic blocks end in jump, conditional-branch, return or diagnostic-trap terminators. conditional arms join only when execution can continue; local slots and temporaries are function-wide, without SSA or phi nodes. literals are parsed and strings decoded during lowering; the module retains no AST, binding-table or source-buffer references. release it with `ir.deinit`; keep and reuse the diagnostic store used during lowering so diagnostic IDs remain valid. the IR is target-independent and is intended to feed later native backends as well as the current interpreter.
+`lower.lower` turns the checked AST and binding table into an owned `@source/ir` module. functions, globals, local slots and instruction-result temporaries have explicit IDs; typed instructions execute in source evaluation order and basic blocks end in jump, conditional-branch, return or diagnostic-trap terminators. conditional arms join only when execution can continue; loops use condition/body/exit blocks and backedges. local slots and temporaries are function-wide, without SSA or phi nodes. literals are parsed and strings decoded during lowering; the module retains no AST, binding-table or source-buffer references. release it with `ir.deinit`; keep and reuse the diagnostic store used during lowering so diagnostic IDs remain valid. the IR is target-independent and is intended to feed later native backends as well as the current interpreter.
 
-`interpreter.run` consumes only IR and returns a value or a diagnostic trap. string values carry a module-local `ir.StringId`, not a slice; resolve bytes with `ir.string_bytes(&module, id)` before releasing the module. decoded bytes and their full backing allocations remain module-owned, without copying strings during calls or returns. heap-backed invocation frames track their current block and resume it after calls or global initialization. parameters are initialized on entry and locals execute in statement order; premature local reads trap. globals initialize lazily on their first read, cache their result for that run, and trap on initialization cycles. integers use signed 64-bit storage with checked arithmetic; floats use 64-bit IEEE arithmetic and comparisons, including NaN behavior. numeric literal overflow and float underflow to zero are diagnosed; representable subnormals are accepted. strings support `\\`, `\"`, `\n`, `\r`, `\t`, `\0` and `\xNN` escapes.
+`interpreter.run` consumes only IR and returns a value or a diagnostic trap. string values carry a module-local `ir.StringId`, not a slice; resolve bytes with `ir.string_bytes(&module, id)` before releasing the module. decoded bytes and their full backing allocations remain module-owned, without copying strings during calls or returns. heap-backed invocation frames track their current block and resume it after calls or global initialization; loop iterations reuse the invocation's storage without allocating new frames. parameters are initialized on entry and local declarations execute in statement order. premature local reads and assignments trap; assignment evaluates its right-hand side before checking the destination's initialization. globals initialize lazily on their first read, cache their result for that run, and trap on initialization cycles. integers use signed 64-bit storage with checked arithmetic; floats use 64-bit IEEE arithmetic and comparisons, including NaN behavior. numeric literal overflow and float underflow to zero are diagnosed; representable subnormals are accepted. strings support `\\`, `\"`, `\n`, `\r`, `\t`, `\0` and `\xNN` escapes.
 
-recoverable source errors do not stop execution of unaffected code. unused invalid functions, globals and conditional arms retain diagnostic traps; reaching invalid code reports its original diagnostic identity. missing-return traps affect only paths that fall through, not arms that already return or trap. diagnostics include the filename, line and byte column. exit status is `0` for clean execution, `1` for source diagnostics or a runtime trap, and `2` for usage or infrastructure failure. native code generation, loops, assignment and boolean logical operators remain unimplemented.
+recoverable source errors do not stop execution of unaffected code. unused invalid functions, globals and nested bodies retain diagnostic traps; reaching invalid code reports its original diagnostic identity. missing-return traps affect only paths that fall through, not paths that already return or trap. diagnostics include the filename, line and byte column. exit status is `0` for clean execution, `1` for source diagnostics or a runtime trap, and `2` for usage or infrastructure failure. native code generation, `for`, `break`/`continue`, compound assignment and boolean logical operators remain unimplemented.
diff --git a/programs/iterative_factorial.hon b/programs/iterative_factorial.hon
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bfaaa58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/programs/iterative_factorial.hon
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+main proc() int {
+    product := 1
+    remaining := 5
+
+    while remaining > 1 {
+        product = product * remaining
+        remaining = remaining - 1
+    }
+
+    return product
+}
diff --git a/source/ast/ast.hon b/source/ast/ast.hon
index 2b2d37b..dea482c 100644
--- a/source/ast/ast.hon
+++ b/source/ast/ast.hon
@@ -1,13 +1,13 @@
 #! grammar:
 #! * type ..... -> identifier
-#! * assignment -> :: | :=
+#! * binding ... -> :: | :=
 #! * literal .. -> int | float | string | 'true' | 'false'
 #! * op ....... -> '+' | '-' | '*' | '/' | '==' | '!=' | '<' | '<=' | '>' | '>='
 #! * expr ..... -> identifier | literal | '(' expr ')' | '-' expr | expr op expr | expr '(' [expr {',' expr} [',']] ')'
-#! * decl ..... -> identifier [type] assignment expr
+#! * decl ..... -> identifier [type] binding expr
 #! * block .... -> '{' {stmt} '}'
 #! * arm ...... -> block | stmt (single statements become canonical blocks)
-#! * stmt ..... -> decl | expr | 'return' [expr] | 'if' expr arm ['else' arm]
+#! * stmt ..... -> decl | expr | identifier '=' expr | 'return' [expr] | 'if' expr arm ['else' arm] | 'while' expr arm
 #! braceless guards require parentheses unless the condition is a call; else binds to the nearest if.
 
 import "@std/debug"
@@ -47,7 +47,11 @@ DeclKind :: enum {
 StmtKind :: enum {
     declaration,
     expression,
-    return_stmt, if_stmt, invalid
+    assignment_stmt,
+    return_stmt,
+    if_stmt,
+    while_stmt,
+    invalid
 }
 
 Mutability :: enum {
@@ -78,6 +82,8 @@ NodeKind :: enum {
     stmt_decl,
     stmt_return,
     stmt_if,
+    stmt_assignment,
+    stmt_while,
     func_decl,
     param_decl,
     block,
@@ -176,6 +182,18 @@ IfView :: struct {
     else_block ?NodeId
 }
 
+AssignmentView :: struct {
+    span Span
+    target NodeId
+    value NodeId
+}
+
+WhileView :: struct {
+    span Span
+    condition NodeId
+    body NodeId
+}
+
 InvalidView :: struct {
     span Span
     diagnostic DiagnosticId
@@ -309,6 +327,32 @@ add_if_stmt proc(
     }, span)
 }
 
+add_assignment_stmt proc(
+    builder @mut Builder,
+    span Span,
+    target NodeId,
+    value NodeId,
+) NodeId ! mem.AllocError {
+    return try add_node(builder, Node{
+        kind = .stmt_assignment,
+        main = NodeData{ node_id = target },
+        data0 = NodeData{ node_id = value },
+    }, span)
+}
+
+add_while_stmt proc(
+    builder @mut Builder,
+    span Span,
+    condition NodeId,
+    body NodeId,
+) NodeId ! mem.AllocError {
+    return try add_node(builder, Node{
+        kind = .stmt_while,
+        main = NodeData{ node_id = condition },
+        data0 = NodeData{ node_id = body },
+    }, span)
+}
+
 add_statement_decl proc(
     builder @mut Builder,
     span Span,
@@ -445,6 +489,8 @@ stmt_kind proc(tree @Tree, id NodeId) StmtKind {
         .stmt_expr: .expression
         .stmt_return: .return_stmt
         .stmt_if: .if_stmt
+        .stmt_assignment: .assignment_stmt
+        .stmt_while: .while_stmt
         .invalid_stmt: .invalid
         else: unreachable
     }
@@ -476,6 +522,26 @@ if_stmt proc(tree @Tree, id NodeId) IfView {
     }
 }
 
+assignment_stmt proc(tree @Tree, id NodeId) AssignmentView {
+    node :: get_node(&tree.storage, id)
+    debug.assert(node.kind == .stmt_assignment)
+    return AssignmentView{
+        span = get_span(&tree.storage, id),
+        target = node.main.node_id,
+        value = node.data0.node_id,
+    }
+}
+
+while_stmt proc(tree @Tree, id NodeId) WhileView {
+    node :: get_node(&tree.storage, id)
+    debug.assert(node.kind == .stmt_while)
+    return WhileView{
+        span = get_span(&tree.storage, id),
+        condition = node.main.node_id,
+        body = node.data0.node_id,
+    }
+}
+
 statement_decl proc(tree @Tree, id NodeId) StatementDeclView {
     node :: get_node(&tree.storage, id)
     debug.assert(node.kind == .stmt_decl)
diff --git a/source/ast/renderer/renderer.hon b/source/ast/renderer/renderer.hon
index 6d5c10b..3d67484 100644
--- a/source/ast/renderer/renderer.hon
+++ b/source/ast/renderer/renderer.hon
@@ -77,6 +77,21 @@ render_block proc(renderer @mut Renderer, tree @ast.Tree, block ast.NodeId, dept
                     try render_block(renderer, tree, alternative, depth + 1)
                 }
             }
+            .assignment_stmt: {
+                assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(tree, statement)
+                try append_text(renderer, "assignment ")
+                try append_text(renderer, ast.source_text(tree, ast.node_span(tree, assignment.target)))
+                try append_text(renderer, " = ")
+                try append_text(renderer, ast.source_text(tree, ast.node_span(tree, assignment.value)))
+                try append_text(renderer, "\n")
+            }
+            .while_stmt: {
+                loop :: ast.while_stmt(tree, statement)
+                try append_text(renderer, "while ")
+                try append_text(renderer, ast.source_text(tree, ast.node_span(tree, loop.condition)))
+                try append_text(renderer, "\n")
+                try render_block(renderer, tree, loop.body, depth + 1)
+            }
             .invalid: try append_text(renderer, "invalid statement\n")
         }
     }
diff --git a/source/diagnostics/diagnostics.hon b/source/diagnostics/diagnostics.hon
index 2348ee9..8e8b94a 100644
--- a/source/diagnostics/diagnostics.hon
+++ b/source/diagnostics/diagnostics.hon
@@ -28,11 +28,13 @@ Code :: enum {
     missing_return,
     return_type_mismatch,
     condition_not_bool,
+    invalid_assignment_target,
     missing_entry,
     invalid_entry,
     literal_out_of_range,
     invalid_escape,
     read_before_initialization,
+    write_before_initialization,
     initialization_cycle,
     integer_overflow,
 }
@@ -93,12 +95,14 @@ message proc(code Code) []u8 {
         .cannot_infer_type: "cannot infer a type without a type anchor"
         .missing_return: "nonvoid function can finish without returning a value"
         .return_type_mismatch: "return does not match the function result type"
-        .condition_not_bool: "if condition must have type bool"
+        .condition_not_bool: "condition must have type bool"
+        .invalid_assignment_target: "assignment requires a mutable local binding"
         .missing_entry: "program requires a main function"
         .invalid_entry: "main must be a function with no parameters"
         .literal_out_of_range: "numeric literal is outside its runtime type's range"
         .invalid_escape: "invalid string escape"
         .read_before_initialization: "local value was read before initialization"
+        .write_before_initialization: "local value was assigned before initialization"
         .initialization_cycle: "global initialization cycle"
         .integer_overflow: "integer arithmetic overflow"
     }
diff --git a/source/interpreter/interpreter.hon b/source/interpreter/interpreter.hon
index 7c61ff8..9804cd6 100644
--- a/source/interpreter/interpreter.hon
+++ b/source/interpreter/interpreter.hon
@@ -113,6 +113,18 @@ run proc(
                 }
                 continue
             }
+            .assign_local: {
+                local :: &frames.items[frame_index].locals[usize(instruction.slot)]
+                if (!local.initialized) {
+                    return try runtime_trap(diagnostic_store, .write_before_initialization, instruction.span)
+                }
+                local.value = frames.items[frame_index].values[usize(instruction.left)]
+                continue
+            }
+            .reset_local: {
+                frames.items[frame_index].locals[usize(instruction.slot)].initialized = false
+                continue
+            }
             .load_global: {
                 global_index :: usize(instruction.slot)
                 match globals[global_index].status {
diff --git a/source/interpreter/interpreter.test.hon b/source/interpreter/interpreter.test.hon
index f4cf82a..a5c07fa 100644
--- a/source/interpreter/interpreter.test.hon
+++ b/source/interpreter/interpreter.test.hon
@@ -671,3 +671,111 @@ boolean_equality_and_branching_use_boolean_payloads test {
         }
     }
 }
+
+assign_local_replaces_initialized_values_without_producing_a_result test {
+    module := ir.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer ir.deinit(&module)
+    store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&store)
+    types [1]ir.Type :: [.int]
+    main :: try add_function(&module, types[..], 0, .int, 3)
+    module.entry = main
+    try emit(&module, main, integer(0, 1))
+    try emit(&module, main, ir.Instruction{ op = .store_local, slot = 0, left = ir.ValueId(0) })
+    try emit(&module, main, integer(1, 42))
+    try emit(&module, main, ir.Instruction{ op = .assign_local, slot = 0, left = ir.ValueId(1) })
+    try emit(&module, main, ir.Instruction{ op = .load_local, type = .int, destination = ir.ValueId(2), slot = 0 })
+    return_value(&module, main, ir.ValueId(2))
+    outcome :: try run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &store)
+    try testing.expect(outcome.trap == null)
+    try testing.expect_equal(ir.Type.int, outcome.value.type)
+    try testing.expect_equal(i64(42), outcome.value.data.integer)
+    try testing.expect_equal(usize(0), diagnostics.count(&store))
+}
+
+reset_local_invalidates_reads_and_assignments_at_the_instruction_span test {
+    operations [2]ir.Op :: [.load_local, .assign_local]
+    codes [2]diagnostics.Code :: [.read_before_initialization, .write_before_initialization]
+    for (operations) |op, index| {
+        module := ir.init(mem.c_allocator)
+        defer ir.deinit(&module)
+        store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+        defer diagnostics.deinit(&store)
+        types [1]ir.Type :: [.int]
+        main :: try add_function(&module, types[..], 0, .int, 2)
+        module.entry = main
+        span :: diagnostics.Span{ start = 21, end = 26 }
+        try emit(&module, main, integer(0, 42))
+        try emit(&module, main, ir.Instruction{ op = .store_local, slot = 0, left = ir.ValueId(0) })
+        try emit(&module, main, ir.Instruction{ op = .reset_local, slot = 0 })
+        destination ir.ValueId :: if (op == .load_local) ir.ValueId(1) else ir.no_value
+        try emit(&module, main, ir.Instruction{
+            op = op, type = .int, destination = destination, slot = 0, left = ir.ValueId(0), span = span,
+        })
+        outcome :: try run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &store)
+        try expect_trap(outcome, &store, codes[index], span)
+        try testing.expect_equal(usize(1), diagnostics.count(&store))
+    }
+}
+
+premature_assignment_and_reset_traps_release_frames_at_all_allocation_boundaries test {
+    module := ir.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer ir.deinit(&module)
+    store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&store)
+    types [1]ir.Type :: [.int]
+    main :: try add_function(&module, types[..], 0, .int, 1)
+    module.entry = main
+    span :: diagnostics.Span{ start = 14, end = 19 }
+    try emit(&module, main, integer(0, 42))
+    try emit(&module, main, ir.Instruction{ op = .store_local, slot = 0, left = ir.ValueId(0) })
+    try emit(&module, main, ir.Instruction{ op = .reset_local, slot = 0 })
+    try emit(&module, main, ir.Instruction{ op = .assign_local, slot = 0, left = ir.ValueId(0), span = span })
+    failures := usize(0)
+    succeeded := false
+    for (usize(0)..usize(16)) |limit| {
+        state := AllocationState{ remaining = limit }
+        allocator :: mem.Allocator{ context = &state, vtable = &limited_vtable }
+        outcome :: run(allocator, &module, &store) catch |error| {
+            match error {
+                .out_of_memory: {}
+                else: return .expectation_failed
+            }
+            failures += 1
+            try testing.expect_equal(usize(0), state.live)
+            continue
+        }
+        succeeded = true
+        try expect_trap(outcome, &store, .write_before_initialization, span)
+        try testing.expect_equal(usize(0), state.live)
+    }
+    try testing.expect(succeeded)
+    try testing.expect(failures > 0)
+}
+
+assignment_diagnostic_allocation_failure_releases_runtime_storage test {
+    module := ir.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer ir.deinit(&module)
+    types [1]ir.Type :: [.int]
+    main :: try add_function(&module, types[..], 0, .int, 1)
+    module.entry = main
+    try emit(&module, main, integer(0, 42))
+    try emit(&module, main, ir.Instruction{ op = .assign_local, slot = 0, left = ir.ValueId(0) })
+    diagnostic_state := AllocationState{ remaining = 0 }
+    diagnostic_allocator :: mem.Allocator{ context = &diagnostic_state, vtable = &limited_vtable }
+    store := diagnostics.init(diagnostic_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&store)
+    state := AllocationState{ remaining = 64 }
+    allocator :: mem.Allocator{ context = &state, vtable = &limited_vtable }
+    _ = run(allocator, &module, &store) catch |error| {
+        match error {
+            .out_of_memory: {}
+            else: return .expectation_failed
+        }
+        try testing.expect_equal(usize(0), state.live)
+        try testing.expect_equal(usize(0), diagnostic_state.live)
+        try testing.expect_equal(usize(0), diagnostics.count(&store))
+        return
+    }
+    return .expectation_failed
+}
diff --git a/source/ir/ir.hon b/source/ir/ir.hon
index 49a0b33..7e12d31 100644
--- a/source/ir/ir.hon
+++ b/source/ir/ir.hon
@@ -36,6 +36,8 @@ Op :: enum {
     constant
     load_local
     store_local
+    assign_local
+    reset_local
     load_global
     negate
     add
diff --git a/source/lower/lower.hon b/source/lower/lower.hon
index c62ce5f..a0a99e4 100644
--- a/source/lower/lower.hon
+++ b/source/lower/lower.hon
@@ -175,7 +175,7 @@ finish proc(state @mut State, value ir.ValueId, span diagnostics.Span) void {
 emit proc(state @mut State, instruction ir.Instruction) ir.ValueId ! mem.AllocError {
     function := &state.module.functions.items[state.function]
     operation := instruction
-    if (operation.op != .store_local) {
+    if (operation.op != .store_local and operation.op != .assign_local and operation.op != .reset_local) {
         operation.destination = ir.ValueId(function.value_count)
         function.value_count += 1
     }
@@ -226,7 +226,7 @@ lower_function proc(state @mut State, id ast.NodeId) void ! (mem.AllocError | di
         if (trap_type(state, ast.function_param(tree, id, i))) return
     }
     if (trap_type(state, id)) return
-    try lower_block(state, declaration.body)
+    try lower_block(state, declaration.body, false)
     if (state.terminated) return
     # aggregate arm errors are not demanded by fallthrough; only missing_return is.
     body_type :: typecheck.type_of(state.checked, declaration.body)
@@ -256,13 +256,26 @@ predeclare_locals proc(state @mut State, block ast.NodeId) void ! mem.AllocError
                 try predeclare_locals(state, conditional.then_block)
                 if (conditional.else_block) |alternative| try predeclare_locals(state, alternative)
             }
+            .while_stmt: try predeclare_locals(state, ast.while_stmt(state.tree, statement).body)
             else: {}
         }
     }
 }
 
 @hide:file
-lower_block proc(state @mut State, block ast.NodeId) void ! (mem.AllocError | diagnostics.CapacityError) {
+lower_block proc(state @mut State, block ast.NodeId, fresh_scope bool) void ! (mem.AllocError | diagnostics.CapacityError) {
+    # reset every direct declaration before control can return or trap within the scope.
+    if (fresh_scope) {
+        for (0..ast.block_statement_count(state.tree, block)) |i| {
+            declaration :: ast.block_statement(state.tree, block, i)
+            if (ast.stmt_kind(state.tree, declaration) != .declaration) continue
+            _ = try emit(state, ir.Instruction{
+                op = .reset_local,
+                slot = state.storage[usize(declaration)].index,
+                span = ast.node_span(state.tree, declaration),
+            })
+        }
+    }
     for (0..ast.block_statement_count(state.tree, block)) |i| {
         if (state.terminated) return
         try lower_statement(state, ast.block_statement(state.tree, block, i))
@@ -293,12 +306,12 @@ lower_if proc(state @mut State, id ast.NodeId) void ! (mem.AllocError | diagnost
         span = ast.node_span(state.tree, conditional.condition),
     }
     state.block = consequent
-    try lower_block(state, conditional.then_block)
+    try lower_block(state, conditional.then_block, true)
     consequent_end :: state.block
     consequent_falls :: !state.terminated
     state.block = alternative
     state.terminated = false
-    if (conditional.else_block) |block| try lower_block(state, block)
+    if (conditional.else_block) |block| try lower_block(state, block, true)
     alternative_end :: state.block
     alternative_falls :: !state.terminated
     if (!consequent_falls and !alternative_falls) {
@@ -320,11 +333,57 @@ lower_if proc(state @mut State, id ast.NodeId) void ! (mem.AllocError | diagnost
     state.terminated = false
 }
 
+@hide:file
+lower_while proc(state @mut State, id ast.NodeId) void ! (mem.AllocError | diagnostics.CapacityError) {
+    loop :: ast.while_stmt(state.tree, id)
+    origin :: state.block
+    guard :: try add_block(state)
+    state.module.functions.items[state.function].blocks.items[usize(origin)].terminator = ir.Terminator{
+        kind = .jump, target = guard, span = loop.span,
+    }
+    state.block = guard
+    condition :: try lower_expression(state, loop.condition)
+    if (state.terminated) return
+    body :: try add_block(state)
+    exit :: try add_block(state)
+    state.module.functions.items[state.function].blocks.items[usize(guard)].terminator = ir.Terminator{
+        kind = .branch,
+        value = condition,
+        target = body,
+        alternative = exit,
+        span = ast.node_span(state.tree, loop.condition),
+    }
+    state.block = body
+    try lower_block(state, loop.body, true)
+    if (!state.terminated) {
+        state.module.functions.items[state.function].blocks.items[usize(state.block)].terminator = ir.Terminator{
+            kind = .jump, target = guard, span = loop.span,
+        }
+    }
+    state.block = exit
+    state.terminated = false
+}
+
 @hide:file
 lower_statement proc(state @mut State, id ast.NodeId) void ! (mem.AllocError | diagnostics.CapacityError) {
     tree :: state.tree
     match ast.stmt_kind(tree, id) {
         .if_stmt: try lower_if(state, id)
+        .while_stmt: try lower_while(state, id)
+        .assignment_stmt: {
+            assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(tree, id)
+            if (trap_binding(state, assignment.target) or trap_type(state, id)) return
+            value :: try lower_expression(state, assignment.value)
+            if (state.terminated) return
+            binding :: sema.binding(state.resolution, assignment.target)
+            _ = try emit(state, ir.Instruction{
+                op = .assign_local,
+                type = lower_type(typecheck.type_of(state.checked, assignment.target)),
+                left = value,
+                slot = state.storage[usize(binding.data.declaration)].index,
+                span = ast.node_span(tree, assignment.target),
+            })
+        }
         .invalid: {
             invalid :: ast.invalid(tree, id)
             trap(state, invalid.diagnostic, invalid.span)
diff --git a/source/lower/lower.test.hon b/source/lower/lower.test.hon
index 6e062f5..ab7a29e 100644
--- a/source/lower/lower.test.hon
+++ b/source/lower/lower.test.hon
@@ -431,6 +431,12 @@ releases_temporaries_and_partially_owned_modules_on_allocation_failure test {
         `}
         `main proc() string {
         `    computed float :: factor * 2
+        `    remaining := 2
+        `    while remaining > 0 {
+        `        pass :: identity(text)
+        `        identity(pass)
+        `        remaining = remaining - 1
+        `    }
         `    if computed > 0 {
         `        saved :: identity(text)
         `        if computed < 10 {
@@ -654,3 +660,220 @@ nested_locals_are_predeclared_before_any_arm_executes test {
     outcome :: try interpreter.run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &diagnostic_store)
     try expect_trap(outcome, &diagnostic_store, .read_before_initialization)
 }
+
+iterative_factorial_executes_from_owned_ir_after_frontend_cleanup test {
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `factorial proc(n int) int {
+        `    remaining := n
+        `    result := 1
+        `    while remaining > 1 {
+        `        result = result * remaining
+        `        remaining = remaining - 1
+        `    }
+        `    return result
+        `}
+        `main proc() int {
+        `    return factorial(5)
+        `}
+    module := try compile_owned(source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ir.deinit(&module)
+    try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    outcome :: try interpreter.run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &diagnostic_store)
+    try testing.expect(outcome.trap == null)
+    try testing.expect_equal(ir.Type.int, outcome.value.type)
+    try testing.expect_equal(i64(120), outcome.value.data.integer)
+}
+
+zero_nested_early_return_and_predicate_call_loops_execute test {
+    sources [6][]u8 :: [
+        "main proc() int {\n n := 0\n while n > 0 {\n n = n - 1\n }\n return 42 + n\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n outer := 3\n total := 0\n while outer > 0 {\n inner := 2\n while inner > 0 {\n total = total + 7\n inner = inner - 1\n }\n outer = outer - 1\n }\n return total\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n n := 2\n while n > 0 {\n if n == 1 { return 42 }\n n = n - 1\n }\n return 0\n}\n",
+        "enabled :: positive(1)\npositive proc(n int) bool { return n > 0 }\nmain proc() int {\n n := 3\n total := 0\n while positive(n) {\n if enabled { total = total + 14 }\n n = n - 1\n }\n return total\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n n := 0\n while (n < 42) n = n + 1\n return n\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n while true { return 42 }\n return 0\n}\n",
+    ]
+    for (sources) |source| {
+        diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+        defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+        module := try compile_owned(source, &diagnostic_store)
+        defer ir.deinit(&module)
+        try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+        outcome :: try interpreter.run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &diagnostic_store)
+        try testing.expect(outcome.trap == null)
+        try testing.expect_equal(ir.Type.int, outcome.value.type)
+        try testing.expect_equal(i64(42), outcome.value.data.integer)
+    }
+}
+
+float_bool_string_and_compatible_function_updates_execute test {
+    sources [4][]u8 :: [
+        "main proc() float {\n value float := 0\n value = 3 / 2\n return value\n}\n",
+        "main proc() bool {\n flag := false\n flag = true\n return flag\n}\n",
+        "main proc() string {\n text := \"before\"\n text = \"owned\\nupdated\"\n return text\n}\n",
+        "first proc(value int) int { return value + 1 }\nsecond proc(renamed int) int { return renamed + 2 }\nmain proc() int {\n invoke := first\n invoke = second\n return invoke(40)\n}\n",
+    ]
+    expected_types [4]ir.Type :: [.float, .bool, .string, .int]
+    for (sources) |source, index| {
+        diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+        defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+        module := try compile_owned(source, &diagnostic_store)
+        defer ir.deinit(&module)
+        try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+        outcome :: try interpreter.run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &diagnostic_store)
+        try testing.expect(outcome.trap == null)
+        try testing.expect_equal(expected_types[index], outcome.value.type)
+        match index {
+            0: try testing.expect_equal(f64(1.5), outcome.value.data.real)
+            1: try testing.expect(outcome.value.data.boolean)
+            2: try testing.expect(mem.eql(ir.string_bytes(&module, outcome.value.data.string), "owned\nupdated"))
+            3: try testing.expect_equal(i64(42), outcome.value.data.integer)
+            else: unreachable
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+forward_assignments_check_initialization_after_evaluating_the_rhs test {
+    sources [2][]u8 :: [
+        "main proc() int {\n later = 42\n later := 0\n return later\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n later = later + 1\n later := 0\n return later\n}\n",
+    ]
+    codes [2]diagnostics.Code :: [.write_before_initialization, .read_before_initialization]
+    for (sources) |source, index| {
+        diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+        defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+        module := try compile_owned(source, &diagnostic_store)
+        defer ir.deinit(&module)
+        try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+        outcome :: try interpreter.run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &diagnostic_store)
+        try expect_trap(outcome, &diagnostic_store, codes[index])
+        diagnostic :: diagnostics.get(&diagnostic_store, outcome.trap?)?
+        try testing.expect(mem.eql(source[usize(diagnostic.span.start)..usize(diagnostic.span.end)], "later"))
+        try testing.expect_equal(1, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    }
+}
+
+loop_and_reentered_arm_locals_are_uninitialized_before_later_declarations test {
+    sources [5][]u8 :: [
+        "main proc() int {\n n := 2\n while n > 0 {\n if n == 1 { return later }\n later :: 42\n n = n - 1\n }\n return 0\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n n := 2\n while n > 0 {\n if n == 1 {\n later = 42\n return later\n }\n later := 0\n n = n - 1\n }\n return 0\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n n := 2\n while n > 0 {\n if true {\n if n == 1 { return later }\n later :: 42\n }\n n = n - 1\n }\n return 0\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n n := 2\n while n > 0 {\n if true {\n if n == 1 {\n later = 42\n return later\n }\n later := 0\n }\n n = n - 1\n }\n return 0\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n n := 2\n while n > 0 {\n if false {} else {\n if n == 1 { return later }\n later :: 42\n }\n n = n - 1\n }\n return 0\n}\n",
+    ]
+    codes [5]diagnostics.Code :: [.read_before_initialization, .write_before_initialization, .read_before_initialization, .write_before_initialization, .read_before_initialization]
+    for (sources) |source, index| {
+        diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+        defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+        module := try compile_owned(source, &diagnostic_store)
+        defer ir.deinit(&module)
+        try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+        outcome :: try interpreter.run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &diagnostic_store)
+        try expect_trap(outcome, &diagnostic_store, codes[index])
+        diagnostic :: diagnostics.get(&diagnostic_store, outcome.trap?)?
+        try testing.expect(mem.eql(source[usize(diagnostic.span.start)..usize(diagnostic.span.end)], "later"))
+        try testing.expect_equal(1, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    }
+}
+
+invalid_assignments_and_loop_conditions_preserve_original_diagnostics test {
+    sources [9][]u8 :: [
+        "main proc() int {\n value :: 0\n value = 1\n return 42\n}\n",
+        "update proc(value int) int {\n value = 1\n return value\n}\nmain proc() int { return update(0) }\n",
+        "value := 0\nmain proc() int {\n value = 1\n return value\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n unknown = 1\n return 42\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n value := 0\n value = unknown\n return value\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n value := 0\n value = 1.5\n return value\n}\n",
+        "first proc(value int) int { return value }\nsecond proc(value bool) int { return 42 }\nmain proc() int {\n invoke := first\n invoke = second\n return 42\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n while 1 { return 42 }\n return 0\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n while unknown { return 42 }\n return 0\n}\n",
+    ]
+    codes [9]diagnostics.Code :: [.invalid_assignment_target, .invalid_assignment_target, .invalid_assignment_target, .unknown_name, .unknown_name, .type_mismatch, .type_mismatch, .condition_not_bool, .unknown_name]
+    for (sources) |source, index| {
+        diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+        defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+        module := try compile_owned(source, &diagnostic_store)
+        defer ir.deinit(&module)
+        try testing.expect_equal(1, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+        original :: diagnostics.get(&diagnostic_store, diagnostics.DiagnosticId(0))?
+        try testing.expect_equal(codes[index], original.code)
+        outcome :: try interpreter.run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &diagnostic_store)
+        try testing.expect_equal(diagnostics.DiagnosticId(0), outcome.trap?)
+        try testing.expect_equal(1, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    }
+}
+
+zero_iteration_body_errors_are_checked_but_not_executed test {
+    sources [5][]u8 :: [
+        "main proc() int {\n while false {\n unknown = 1\n }\n return 42\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n while false {\n value :: 0\n value = 1\n }\n return 42\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n while false {\n value := 0\n value = true\n }\n return 42\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n while false {\n return unknown\n }\n return 42\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n while false {\n while unknown {}\n }\n return 42\n}\n",
+    ]
+    for (sources) |source| {
+        diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+        defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+        module := try compile_owned(source, &diagnostic_store)
+        defer ir.deinit(&module)
+        try testing.expect(diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store) > 0)
+        count :: diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store)
+        outcome :: try interpreter.run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &diagnostic_store)
+        try testing.expect(outcome.trap == null)
+        try testing.expect_equal(i64(42), outcome.value.data.integer)
+        try testing.expect_equal(count, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    }
+}
+
+loop_returns_do_not_guarantee_return_and_assignment_arithmetic_still_checks_overflow test {
+    sources [3][]u8 :: [
+        "main proc() int {\n while true { return 42 }\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n while false { return 42 }\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n value := 9223372036854775807\n while true {\n value = value + 1\n return value\n }\n return 0\n}\n",
+    ]
+    for (sources) |source, index| {
+        diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+        defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+        module := try compile_owned(source, &diagnostic_store)
+        defer ir.deinit(&module)
+        if (index < 2) {
+            try testing.expect_equal(1, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+            diagnostic :: diagnostics.get(&diagnostic_store, diagnostics.DiagnosticId(0))?
+            try testing.expect_equal(diagnostics.Code.missing_return, diagnostic.code)
+        } else try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+        outcome :: try interpreter.run(mem.c_allocator, &module, &diagnostic_store)
+        if (index == 0) {
+            try testing.expect(outcome.trap == null)
+            try testing.expect_equal(i64(42), outcome.value.data.integer)
+        } else {
+            code diagnostics.Code :: if (index == 1) .missing_return else .integer_overflow
+            try expect_trap(outcome, &diagnostic_store, code)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+bounded_pure_loops_do_not_allocate_per_iteration_and_release_runtime_storage test {
+    sources [2][]u8 :: [
+        "main proc() int {\n n := 0\n while n < 1 {\n local :: n\n n = local + 1\n }\n return n\n}\n",
+        "main proc() int {\n n := 0\n while n < 10000 {\n local :: n\n n = local + 1\n }\n return n\n}\n",
+    ]
+    expected [2]i64 :: [1, 10000]
+    allocations := usize(0)
+    for (sources) |source, index| {
+        diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+        defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+        module := try compile_owned(source, &diagnostic_store)
+        defer ir.deinit(&module)
+        try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+        state := AllocationState{ remaining = 64 }
+        allocator :: mem.Allocator{ context = &state, vtable = &limited_vtable }
+        outcome :: try interpreter.run(allocator, &module, &diagnostic_store)
+        try testing.expect(outcome.trap == null)
+        try testing.expect_equal(expected[index], outcome.value.data.integer)
+        try testing.expect_equal(usize(0), state.live)
+        if (index == 0) allocations = usize(64) - state.remaining
+        else try testing.expect_equal(allocations, usize(64) - state.remaining)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/source/parser/parse.hon b/source/parser/parse.hon
index f16bcec..2c41ac3 100644
--- a/source/parser/parse.hon
+++ b/source/parser/parse.hon
@@ -168,6 +168,9 @@ parse_block proc(state @mut State) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
 
 @hide:file
 parse_statement proc(state @mut State, allow_else bool) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
+    if (next_is(state, .ident) and next_n_is(state, 1, .equal)) {
+        return try parse_assignment(state, allow_else)
+    }
     if (
         next_is(state, .ident)
         and (
@@ -180,6 +183,7 @@ parse_statement proc(state @mut State, allow_else bool) ast.NodeId ! ParseError
     }
     match current(state).kind {
         .if: return try parse_if(state)
+        .while: return try parse_while(state, allow_else)
         .return: return try parse_return(state, allow_else)
         .ident, .int, .float, .string, .true, .false, .minus, .open_paren: {
             expression :: try parse_expr(state)
@@ -214,9 +218,73 @@ parse_return proc(state @mut State, allow_else bool) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
     )
 }
 
+@hide:file
+parse_assignment proc(state @mut State, allow_else bool) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
+    name :: try consume(state, .ident)
+    target :: try ast.add_identifier(&state.builder, name.span)
+    _ = try consume(state, .equal)
+    value :: try parse_expr(state)
+    if (
+        !next_is(state, .newline)
+        and !next_is(state, .close_curly)
+        and !next_is(state, .eof)
+        and !(allow_else and next_is(state, .else))
+    ) {
+        return .unexpected_token
+    }
+    end :: state.tokens[state.next_token - 1].span.end
+    return try ast.add_assignment_stmt(
+        &state.builder,
+        ast.Span{ start = name.span.start, end = end },
+        target,
+        value,
+    )
+}
+
 @hide:file
 parse_if proc(state @mut State) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
     keyword :: try consume(state, .if)
+    condition :: try parse_guard(state)
+    braced :: next_is(state, .open_curly)
+    then_block :: try parse_arm(state, true)
+    # only a braced arm permits its else on a later line.
+    after_then :: state.next_token
+    if (braced) skip_newlines(state)
+    alternative ?ast.NodeId := null
+    if next_is(state, .else) {
+        state.next_token += 1
+        alternative = try parse_arm(state, true)
+    } else {
+        state.next_token = after_then
+    }
+    end :: if (alternative) |block|
+        ast.builder_span(&state.builder, block).end
+    else
+        ast.builder_span(&state.builder, then_block).end
+    return try ast.add_if_stmt(
+        &state.builder,
+        ast.Span{ start = keyword.span.start, end = end },
+        condition,
+        then_block,
+        alternative,
+    )
+}
+
+@hide:file
+parse_while proc(state @mut State, allow_else bool) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
+    keyword :: try consume(state, .while)
+    condition :: try parse_guard(state)
+    body :: try parse_arm(state, allow_else)
+    return try ast.add_while_stmt(
+        &state.builder,
+        ast.Span{ start = keyword.span.start, end = ast.builder_span(&state.builder, body).end },
+        condition,
+        body,
+    )
+}
+
+@hide:file
+parse_guard proc(state @mut State) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
     condition_start :: state.next_token
     condition := parse_expr(state) catch |err| {
         match err {
@@ -227,12 +295,14 @@ parse_if proc(state @mut State) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
         yield try ast.add_invalid_expr(&state.builder, current(state).span, diagnostic)
     }
     if (ast.builder_expr_kind(&state.builder, condition) == .invalid) {
-        # discard a malformed guard's tail, but leave its arm and enclosing block intact.
+        # discard a malformed guard's tail, but leave its body and enclosing block intact.
         while (
             !next_is(state, .open_curly) and !next_is(state, .close_curly)
             and !next_is(state, .newline) and !next_is(state, .eof)
-            and !next_is(state, .else) and !next_is(state, .return) and !next_is(state, .if)
+            and !next_is(state, .else) and !next_is(state, .return)
+            and !next_is(state, .if) and !next_is(state, .while)
         ) {
+            if (next_is(state, .ident) and next_n_is(state, 1, .equal)) break
             state.next_token += 1
         }
     }
@@ -249,29 +319,7 @@ parse_if proc(state @mut State) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
             diagnostic,
         )
     }
-    braced :: next_is(state, .open_curly)
-    then_block :: try parse_arm(state)
-    # only a braced arm permits its else on a later line.
-    after_then :: state.next_token
-    if (braced) skip_newlines(state)
-    alternative ?ast.NodeId := null
-    if next_is(state, .else) {
-        state.next_token += 1
-        alternative = try parse_arm(state)
-    } else {
-        state.next_token = after_then
-    }
-    end :: if (alternative) |block|
-        ast.builder_span(&state.builder, block).end
-    else
-        ast.builder_span(&state.builder, then_block).end
-    return try ast.add_if_stmt(
-        &state.builder,
-        ast.Span{ start = keyword.span.start, end = end },
-        condition,
-        then_block,
-        alternative,
-    )
+    return condition
 }
 
 @hide:file
@@ -290,10 +338,10 @@ parenthesized_guard proc(state @State, start usize) bool {
 }
 
 @hide:file
-parse_arm proc(state @mut State) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
+parse_arm proc(state @mut State, allow_else bool) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
     if next_is(state, .open_curly) return try parse_block(state)
     start :: state.next_token
-    statement :: parse_statement(state, true) catch |err| {
+    statement :: parse_statement(state, allow_else) catch |err| {
         match err {
             .unexpected_token: {}
             else: return err
@@ -314,10 +362,14 @@ parse_arm proc(state @mut State) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
 synchronize_arm proc(state @mut State, start usize) ast.Span {
     first :: state.tokens[start].span
     end := first.end
-    while (
-        !next_is(state, .eof) and !next_is(state, .newline)
-        and !next_is(state, .close_curly) and !next_is(state, .else)
-    ) {
+    depth usize := 0
+    while !next_is(state, .eof) {
+        if (
+            depth == 0
+            and (next_is(state, .newline) or next_is(state, .close_curly) or next_is(state, .else))
+        ) break
+        if next_is(state, .open_curly) depth += 1
+        if (next_is(state, .close_curly) and depth > 0) depth -= 1
         end = current(state).span.end
         state.next_token += 1
     }
@@ -485,7 +537,7 @@ parse_primary proc(state @mut State) ast.NodeId ! ParseError {
 @hide:file
 is_expression_boundary proc(kind lexer.TokenKind) bool {
     return match kind {
-        .close_paren, .newline, .close_curly, .open_curly, .else, .return, .if, .eof: true
+        .close_paren, .newline, .close_curly, .open_curly, .else, .return, .if, .while, .eof: true
         else: false
     }
 }
@@ -514,8 +566,12 @@ recover_statement proc(
 synchronize proc(state @mut State, start usize, stop_at_curly bool) ast.Span {
     first :: state.tokens[start].span
     end := first.end
-    while !next_is(state, .eof) and !next_is(state, .newline) {
-        if (stop_at_curly and next_is(state, .close_curly)) break
+    depth usize := 0
+    while !next_is(state, .eof) {
+        if (depth == 0 and next_is(state, .newline)) break
+        if (stop_at_curly and depth == 0 and next_is(state, .close_curly)) break
+        if (stop_at_curly and next_is(state, .open_curly)) depth += 1
+        if (stop_at_curly and next_is(state, .close_curly) and depth > 0) depth -= 1
         end = current(state).span.end
         state.next_token += 1
     }
diff --git a/source/parser/parse.test.hon b/source/parser/parse.test.hon
index b4a4481..9a96cfb 100644
--- a/source/parser/parse.test.hon
+++ b/source/parser/parse.test.hon
@@ -510,3 +510,232 @@ recovers_invalid_guard_syntax_and_missing_arm_at_enclosing_brace test {
     try testing.expect_equal("}", ast.source_text(&tree, arm_error.span))
     try testing.expect_equal(3, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
 }
+
+parses_iterative_factorial_assignments_and_loop test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `factorial proc(n int) int {
+        `    remaining := n
+        `    product := 1
+        `    while remaining > 1 {
+        `        product = product * remaining
+        `        remaining = remaining - 1
+        `    }
+        `    return product
+        `}
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+
+    try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 0)).body
+    try testing.expect_equal(4, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, body))
+    loop_id :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 2)
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.while_stmt, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, loop_id))
+    loop :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, loop_id)
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.BinaryOperator.greater, ast.binary_expr(&tree, loop.condition).operator)
+    try testing.expect_equal(2, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, loop.body))
+    update_id :: ast.block_statement(&tree, loop.body, 0)
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.assignment_stmt, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, update_id))
+    update :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, update_id)
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.ExprKind.identifier, ast.expr_kind(&tree, update.target))
+    try testing.expect_equal("product", ast.source_text(&tree, ast.node_span(&tree, update.target)))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.BinaryOperator.multiply, ast.binary_expr(&tree, update.value).operator)
+    decrement :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, loop.body, 1))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.BinaryOperator.subtract, ast.binary_expr(&tree, decrement.value).operator)
+}
+
+parses_assignment_precedence_grouped_span_and_rhs_boundaries test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `main proc() void {
+        `    value = (1 + 2 * 3)
+        `    if (true) value = 4 else value = 5
+        `    while ready() value = value - 1
+        `    value = 6 }
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+
+    try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 0)).body
+    try testing.expect_equal(4, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, body))
+    assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 0))
+    try testing.expect_equal("value = (1 + 2 * 3)", ast.source_text(&tree, assignment.span))
+    add :: ast.binary_expr(&tree, assignment.value)
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.BinaryOperator.add, add.operator)
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.BinaryOperator.multiply, ast.binary_expr(&tree, add.right).operator)
+    conditional :: ast.if_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 1))
+    first :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, conditional.then_block, 0))
+    second :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, conditional.else_block?, 0))
+    try testing.expect_equal("4", ast.source_text(&tree, ast.node_span(&tree, first.value)))
+    try testing.expect_equal("5", ast.source_text(&tree, ast.node_span(&tree, second.value)))
+    loop :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 2))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.ExprKind.call, ast.expr_kind(&tree, loop.condition))
+    try testing.expect_equal(1, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, loop.body))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.assignment_stmt, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, loop.body, 0)))
+    last :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 3))
+    try testing.expect_equal("6", ast.source_text(&tree, ast.node_span(&tree, last.value)))
+}
+
+parses_nested_loops_and_preserves_nearest_if_else test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `main proc() void {
+        `    if (true) while (false) if (true) x = 1 else x = 2 else x = 3
+        `    while (true) while (false) x = 4
+        `    while (true) {
+        `        while false { x = 5 }
+        `    }
+        `}
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+
+    try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 0)).body
+    try testing.expect_equal(3, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, body))
+    outer :: ast.if_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 0))
+    loop :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, outer.then_block, 0))
+    inner :: ast.if_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, loop.body, 0))
+    inner_else :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, inner.else_block?, 0))
+    outer_else :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, outer.else_block?, 0))
+    try testing.expect_equal("2", ast.source_text(&tree, ast.node_span(&tree, inner_else.value)))
+    try testing.expect_equal("3", ast.source_text(&tree, ast.node_span(&tree, outer_else.value)))
+    braceless :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 1))
+    nested :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, braceless.body, 0))
+    try testing.expect_equal(1, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, nested.body))
+    braced :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 2))
+    child :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, braced.body, 0))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.ExprKind.literal_bool, ast.expr_kind(&tree, child.condition))
+    try testing.expect_equal(1, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, child.body))
+}
+
+recovers_loop_guards_bodies_and_assignments_without_losing_braces test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `main proc() void {
+        `    while { x = 1 }
+        `    while true x = 2
+        `    while broken( { x = 3 }
+        `    x =
+        `    x = 1 junk
+        `    if (true) x = else x = 4
+        `    kept :: 7
+        `    while (false) }
+        `tail :: 8
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+
+    try testing.expect(diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store) > 0)
+    try testing.expect_equal(2, ast.package_decl_count(&tree))
+    body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 0)).body
+    try testing.expect_equal(8, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, body))
+    for 0..3 |index| {
+        loop :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, usize(index)))
+        try testing.expect_equal(ast.ExprKind.invalid, ast.expr_kind(&tree, loop.condition))
+        try testing.expect_equal(1, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, loop.body))
+        try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.assignment_stmt, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, loop.body, 0)))
+    }
+    missing :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 3))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.ExprKind.invalid, ast.expr_kind(&tree, missing.value))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.invalid, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 4)))
+    conditional :: ast.if_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 5))
+    missing_arm :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, conditional.then_block, 0))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.ExprKind.invalid, ast.expr_kind(&tree, missing_arm.value))
+    try testing.expect(conditional.else_block != null)
+    kept :: ast.statement_decl(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 6))
+    try testing.expect_equal("kept", ast.source_text(&tree, kept.name))
+    last :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 7))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.invalid, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, last.body, 0)))
+    tail :: ast.statement_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 1))
+    try testing.expect_equal("tail", ast.source_text(&tree, tail.name))
+}
+
+rejects_top_level_assignment_loop_else_and_assignment_expressions test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `x = 1
+        `main proc() void {
+        `    while (true) x = 2 else x = 3
+        `    x = y = 4
+        `    kept :: 5
+        `}
+        `tail :: 6
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+
+    try testing.expect(diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store) > 0)
+    try testing.expect_equal(3, ast.package_decl_count(&tree))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.DeclKind.invalid, ast.decl_kind(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 0)))
+    body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 1)).body
+    try testing.expect_equal(4, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, body))
+    loop :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 0))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.invalid, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, loop.body, 0)))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.invalid, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 1)))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.invalid, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 2)))
+    kept :: ast.statement_decl(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 3))
+    try testing.expect_equal("kept", ast.source_text(&tree, kept.name))
+}
+
+recovers_nested_braces_in_malformed_loop_body_and_assignment test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `main proc() void {
+        `    while (true) @ {
+        `        bad()
+        `    }
+        `    x = {
+        `        bad()
+        `    }
+        `    kept :: 7
+        `}
+        `tail :: 8
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+
+    try testing.expect(diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store) > 0)
+    try testing.expect_equal(2, ast.package_decl_count(&tree))
+    body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 0)).body
+    try testing.expect_equal(3, ast.block_statement_count(&tree, body))
+    loop :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 0))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.invalid, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, loop.body, 0)))
+    try testing.expect_equal(ast.StmtKind.invalid, ast.stmt_kind(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 1)))
+    kept :: ast.statement_decl(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 2))
+    try testing.expect_equal("kept", ast.source_text(&tree, kept.name))
+    tail :: ast.statement_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 1))
+    try testing.expect_equal("tail", ast.source_text(&tree, tail.name))
+}
diff --git a/source/sema/check/check.hon b/source/sema/check/check.hon
index 00ced9a..f318036 100644
--- a/source/sema/check/check.hon
+++ b/source/sema/check/check.hon
@@ -27,7 +27,20 @@ Result :: struct { storage Storage }
 no_index :: maxval!(usize)
 
 @hide:file
-Role :: enum { none, expression, declaration, parameter, function, annotation, invalid, body, return_stmt, if_stmt }
+Role :: enum {
+    none,
+    expression,
+    declaration,
+    parameter,
+    function,
+    annotation,
+    invalid,
+    body,
+    return_stmt,
+    if_stmt,
+    assignment_stmt,
+    while_stmt,
+}
 
 @hide:file
 Cell :: struct {
@@ -39,6 +52,8 @@ Cell :: struct {
     anchored bool = false
     demand TypeKind = .none
     fixed bool = false
+    local bool = false
+    assignment_value bool = false
     first_edge usize = no_index
     return_annotation ast.NodeId = ast.NodeId(maxval!(u32))
 }
@@ -57,6 +72,8 @@ State :: struct {
     types []mut Type
     cells []mut Cell
     edges arraylist.ArrayList(Edge)
+    collecting_assignment bool = false
+    has_assignments bool = false
 }
 
 #! borrows the AST, resolution, and diagnostic store only during checking.
@@ -95,6 +112,19 @@ check proc(
             .invalid: collect_invalid(&state, id)
         }
     }
+    for (0..count) |i| {
+        if (cells[i].role != .assignment_stmt) continue
+        target :: ast.assignment_stmt(tree, ast.NodeId(i)).target
+        binding :: sema.binding(resolution, target)
+        if (binding.kind == .invalid) {
+            cells[i].type = invalid_type(binding.data.diagnostic)
+            continue
+        }
+        if (binding.kind != .declaration or mutable_target(&state, target)) continue
+        cells[i].type = invalid_type(try diagnostics.add(
+            diagnostic_store, .invalid_assignment_target, ast.node_span(tree, target),
+        ))
+    }
 
     # aliases share a type variable; explicit annotations and parameters are boundaries.
     for (0..count) |i| {
@@ -113,138 +143,155 @@ check proc(
         }
         if (cells[i].role != .expression or ast.expr_kind(tree, id) != .identifier) continue
         binding :: sema.binding(resolution, id)
-        if (binding.kind == .declaration and !cells[usize(binding.data.declaration)].fixed) {
+        if (binding.kind == .declaration and !cells[i].assignment_value and !cells[usize(binding.data.declaration)].fixed) {
             join(&state, id, binding.data.declaration)
         }
     }
 
-    # function aliases are known before any calls or bodies are checked. Honey's
-    # return annotations are scalar, so a call cannot introduce a function type.
-    for (0..count) |i| {
-        id :: ast.NodeId(i)
-        if (cells[i].role != .expression or ast.expr_kind(tree, id) != .call) continue
-        callee :: ast.call_expr(tree, id).callee
-        signature :: group_type(&state, callee)
-        if (signature.function != ast.NodeId(maxval!(u32))) {
-            result :: ast.function_decl(tree, signature.function).return_type
-            seed(&state, id, types[usize(result)])
-        } else if (signature.kind == .invalid) {
-            seed(&state, id, signature)
-        }
-    }
-    for (0..count) |i| {
-        id :: ast.NodeId(i)
-        if (cells[i].role != .expression or ast.expr_kind(tree, id) != .call) continue
-        callee :: ast.call_expr(tree, id).callee
-        signature :: group_type(&state, callee)
-        if (signature.function != ast.NodeId(maxval!(u32))) continue
-        if (signature.kind == .invalid) {
-            seed(&state, id, signature)
-        } else if (signature.kind != .none or cells[root(&state, usize(callee))].numeric) {
-            seed(&state, id, invalid_type(try diagnostics.add(diagnostic_store, .not_callable, ast.node_span(tree, callee))))
-        } else {
-            # without a function anchor this dependency cannot become callable;
-            # share its eventual inference error instead of emitting a cascade.
-            join(&state, id, callee)
-        }
-    }
-    for (0..count) |i| {
-        if (cells[i].role == .none or cells[i].role == .body) continue
-        types[i] = cells[root(&state, i)].type
-    }
-    # reject inherently nonnumeric operations before connecting their operands.
-    # their otherwise valid inputs must not join a failed constraint component.
-    for (0..count) |i| {
-        id :: ast.NodeId(i)
-        if (cells[i].role != .expression) continue
-        match ast.expr_kind(tree, id) {
-            .unary: try require_numeric(&state, id, ast.unary_expr(tree, id).operand)
-            .binary: {
-                expression :: ast.binary_expr(tree, id)
-                if (bool_equality(&state, id)) continue
-                try require_numeric(&state, id, expression.left)
-                try require_numeric(&state, id, expression.right)
+    # assignment inputs observe established declaration types, never contribute
+    # constraints back into those declarations.
+    for 0..2 |phase| {
+        if (phase == 1 and !state.has_assignments) break
+        assignment_values :: phase == 1
+        if (assignment_values) {
+            for (0..count) |i| {
+                id :: ast.NodeId(i)
+                if (!cells[i].assignment_value or cells[i].role != .expression or ast.expr_kind(tree, id) != .identifier) continue
+                binding :: sema.binding(resolution, id)
+                if (binding.kind == .declaration) cells[i].type = types[usize(binding.data.declaration)]
             }
-            else: {}
         }
-    }
-    propagate(&state, queue)
+        # function aliases are known before calls; scalar return annotations
+        # mean a call cannot introduce a function type.
+        for (0..count) |i| {
+            id :: ast.NodeId(i)
+            if (cells[i].role != .expression or cells[i].assignment_value != assignment_values or ast.expr_kind(tree, id) != .call) continue
+            callee :: ast.call_expr(tree, id).callee
+            signature :: group_type(&state, callee)
+            if (signature.function != ast.NodeId(maxval!(u32))) {
+                result :: ast.function_decl(tree, signature.function).return_type
+                seed(&state, id, types[usize(result)])
+            } else if (signature.kind == .invalid) {
+                seed(&state, id, signature)
+            }
+        }
+        for (0..count) |i| {
+            id :: ast.NodeId(i)
+            if (cells[i].role != .expression or cells[i].assignment_value != assignment_values or ast.expr_kind(tree, id) != .call) continue
+            callee :: ast.call_expr(tree, id).callee
+            signature :: group_type(&state, callee)
+            if (signature.function != ast.NodeId(maxval!(u32))) continue
+            if (signature.kind == .invalid) {
+                seed(&state, id, signature)
+            } else if (signature.kind != .none or cells[root(&state, usize(callee))].numeric) {
+                seed(&state, id, invalid_type(try diagnostics.add(diagnostic_store, .not_callable, ast.node_span(tree, callee))))
+            } else {
+                # without a function anchor, share the eventual inference error.
+                join(&state, id, callee)
+            }
+        }
+        for (0..count) |i| {
+            if (cells[i].role == .none or cells[i].role == .body or cells[i].assignment_value != assignment_values or types[i].kind == .invalid) continue
+            types[i] = cells[root(&state, i)].type
+        }
+        # reject nonnumeric operations before connecting otherwise valid inputs.
+        for (0..count) |i| {
+            id :: ast.NodeId(i)
+            if (cells[i].role != .expression or cells[i].assignment_value != assignment_values) continue
+            match ast.expr_kind(tree, id) {
+                .unary: try require_numeric(&state, id, ast.unary_expr(tree, id).operand)
+                .binary: {
+                    expression :: ast.binary_expr(tree, id)
+                    if (bool_equality(&state, id)) continue
+                    try require_numeric(&state, id, expression.left)
+                    try require_numeric(&state, id, expression.right)
+                }
+                else: {}
+            }
+        }
+        propagate(&state, queue)
 
-    # numeric edges are undirected constraints, not a traversal-time conversion.
-    # rigid values supply demands without joining the component they constrain.
-    for (0..count) |i| {
-        id :: ast.NodeId(i)
-        if (cells[i].role != .expression) continue
-        match ast.expr_kind(tree, id) {
-            .unary: try numeric_operand(&state, id, ast.unary_expr(tree, id).operand)
-            .binary: {
-                expression :: ast.binary_expr(tree, id)
-                if (comparison(expression.operator)) {
-                    if (!bool_equality(&state, id)) try comparison_operands(&state, id)
-                } else {
-                    try numeric_operand(&state, id, expression.left)
-                    try numeric_operand(&state, id, expression.right)
-                    if (expression.operator == .divide) {
-                        try impose(&state, id, .float, .integer_division, expression.span)
+        # numeric edges join flexible operands; rigid inputs supply only demands.
+        for (0..count) |i| {
+            id :: ast.NodeId(i)
+            if (cells[i].role != .expression or cells[i].assignment_value != assignment_values) continue
+            match ast.expr_kind(tree, id) {
+                .unary: try numeric_operand(&state, id, ast.unary_expr(tree, id).operand)
+                .binary: {
+                    expression :: ast.binary_expr(tree, id)
+                    if (comparison(expression.operator)) {
+                        if (!bool_equality(&state, id)) try comparison_operands(&state, id)
+                    } else {
+                        try numeric_operand(&state, id, expression.left)
+                        try numeric_operand(&state, id, expression.right)
+                        if (expression.operator == .divide) {
+                            try impose(&state, id, .float, .integer_division, expression.span)
+                        }
                     }
                 }
-            }
-            else: {}
-        }
-    }
-    for (0..count) |i| {
-        id :: ast.NodeId(i)
-        if (cells[i].role == .declaration) {
-            declaration :: ast.statement_decl(tree, id)
-            if (declaration.type) |annotation| {
-                try demand(&state, declaration.initializer, types[usize(annotation)], .type_mismatch)
+                else: {}
             }
         }
-        if (cells[i].role == .return_stmt) {
-            if (ast.return_stmt(tree, id).value) |value| {
-                try demand(&state, value, types[usize(cells[i].return_annotation)], .return_type_mismatch)
+        for (0..count) |i| {
+            id :: ast.NodeId(i)
+            if (!assignment_values and cells[i].role == .declaration) {
+                declaration :: ast.statement_decl(tree, id)
+                if (declaration.type) |annotation| {
+                    try demand(&state, declaration.initializer, types[usize(annotation)], .type_mismatch)
+                }
+            }
+            if (!assignment_values and cells[i].role == .return_stmt) {
+                if (ast.return_stmt(tree, id).value) |value| {
+                    try demand(&state, value, types[usize(cells[i].return_annotation)], .return_type_mismatch)
+                }
+            }
+            if (assignment_values and cells[i].role == .assignment_stmt) {
+                assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(tree, id)
+                if (mutable_target(&state, assignment.target)) {
+                    try demand(&state, assignment.value, types[usize(assignment.target)], .type_mismatch)
+                }
+            }
+            if (cells[i].role != .expression or cells[i].assignment_value != assignment_values or ast.expr_kind(tree, id) != .call) continue
+            signature :: group_type(&state, ast.call_expr(tree, id).callee)
+            if (signature.function == ast.NodeId(maxval!(u32))) continue
+            parameter_count :: ast.function_param_count(tree, signature.function)
+            for (0..ast.call_arg_count(tree, id)) |j| {
+                if (j >= parameter_count) continue
+                parameter :: ast.function_param(tree, signature.function, j)
+                try demand(&state, ast.call_arg(tree, id, j), cells[usize(parameter)].type, .type_mismatch)
             }
         }
-        if (cells[i].role != .expression or ast.expr_kind(tree, id) != .call) continue
-        signature :: group_type(&state, ast.call_expr(tree, id).callee)
-        if (signature.function == ast.NodeId(maxval!(u32))) continue
-        parameter_count :: ast.function_param_count(tree, signature.function)
-        for (0..ast.call_arg_count(tree, id)) |j| {
-            if (j >= parameter_count) continue
-            parameter :: ast.function_param(tree, signature.function, j)
-            try demand(&state, ast.call_arg(tree, id, j), cells[usize(parameter)].type, .type_mismatch)
-        }
-    }
 
-    # default only after the complete program has supplied its numeric demands.
-    for (0..count) |i| {
-        if (root(&state, i) != i) continue
-        if (cells[i].type.kind == .invalid) continue
-        if (cells[i].numeric and cells[i].anchored) {
-            kind TypeKind :: if (cells[i].demand == .float) .float else .int
-            cells[i].type = Type{ kind = kind }
+        # defaults follow ordinary program demands, then isolated assignment demands.
+        for (0..count) |i| {
+            if (root(&state, i) != i or cells[i].assignment_value != assignment_values) continue
+            if (cells[i].type.kind == .invalid) continue
+            if (cells[i].numeric and cells[i].anchored) {
+                kind TypeKind :: if (cells[i].demand == .float) .float else .int
+                cells[i].type = Type{ kind = kind }
+            }
         }
-    }
-    for (0..count) |i| {
-        id :: ast.NodeId(i)
-        if (cells[i].role != .expression or ast.expr_kind(tree, id) != .call) continue
-        callee :: ast.call_expr(tree, id).callee
-        signature :: group_type(&state, callee)
-        if (signature.function != ast.NodeId(maxval!(u32)) or signature.kind == .none or signature.kind == .invalid) continue
-        if (group_type(&state, id).kind != .invalid) {
-            seed(&state, id, invalid_type(try diagnostics.add(diagnostic_store, .not_callable, ast.node_span(tree, callee))))
+        for (0..count) |i| {
+            id :: ast.NodeId(i)
+            if (cells[i].role != .expression or cells[i].assignment_value != assignment_values or ast.expr_kind(tree, id) != .call) continue
+            callee :: ast.call_expr(tree, id).callee
+            signature :: group_type(&state, callee)
+            if (signature.function != ast.NodeId(maxval!(u32)) or signature.kind == .none or signature.kind == .invalid) continue
+            if (group_type(&state, id).kind != .invalid) {
+                seed(&state, id, invalid_type(try diagnostics.add(diagnostic_store, .not_callable, ast.node_span(tree, callee))))
+            }
+        }
+        for (0..count) |i| {
+            if (assignment_values or cells[i].role != .declaration or types[i].kind == .invalid) continue
+            index :: root(&state, i)
+            if (cells[index].type.kind != .none) continue
+            diagnostic :: try diagnostics.add(diagnostic_store, .cannot_infer_type, ast.statement_decl(tree, ast.NodeId(i)).name)
+            cells[index].type = invalid_type(diagnostic)
+        }
+        for (0..count) |i| {
+            if (cells[i].role == .none or cells[i].role == .body or cells[i].assignment_value != assignment_values or types[i].kind == .invalid) continue
+            types[i] = cells[root(&state, i)].type
         }
-    }
-    for (0..count) |i| {
-        if (cells[i].role != .declaration or types[i].kind == .invalid) continue
-        index :: root(&state, i)
-        if (cells[index].type.kind != .none) continue
-        diagnostic :: try diagnostics.add(diagnostic_store, .cannot_infer_type, ast.statement_decl(tree, ast.NodeId(i)).name)
-        cells[index].type = invalid_type(diagnostic)
-    }
-    for (0..count) |i| {
-        if (cells[i].role == .none or cells[i].role == .body or types[i].kind == .invalid) continue
-        types[i] = cells[root(&state, i)].type
     }
     for (0..count) |i| try validate(&state, ast.NodeId(i))
 
@@ -253,8 +300,9 @@ check proc(
     propagate(&state, queue)
     # validate conditions after operand errors have reached their users.
     for (0..count) |i| {
-        if (cells[i].role != .if_stmt) continue
-        condition :: ast.if_stmt(tree, ast.NodeId(i)).condition
+        id :: ast.NodeId(i)
+        if (cells[i].role != .if_stmt and cells[i].role != .while_stmt) continue
+        condition :: if (cells[i].role == .if_stmt) ast.if_stmt(tree, id).condition else ast.while_stmt(tree, id).condition
         actual :: types[usize(condition)]
         if (actual.kind != .invalid and actual.kind != .bool) {
             try fail(&state, condition, .condition_not_bool, ast.node_span(tree, condition))
@@ -465,7 +513,10 @@ collect_block proc(state @mut State, id, return_annotation ast.NodeId) void ! (m
     for (0..ast.block_statement_count(tree, id)) |i| {
         statement :: ast.block_statement(tree, id, i)
         match ast.stmt_kind(tree, statement) {
-            .declaration: try collect_declaration(state, statement)
+            .declaration: {
+                state.cells[usize(statement)].local = true
+                try collect_declaration(state, statement)
+            }
             .expression: try collect_expression(state, ast.statement_expr(tree, statement))
             .return_stmt: {
                 state.cells[usize(statement)].role = .return_stmt
@@ -489,6 +540,35 @@ collect_block proc(state @mut State, id, return_annotation ast.NodeId) void ! (m
                     try depend(state, other, id)
                 }
             }
+            .assignment_stmt: {
+                assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(tree, statement)
+                state.cells[usize(statement)].role = .assignment_stmt
+                state.has_assignments = true
+                state.cells[usize(statement)].type = Type{ kind = .void }
+                binding :: sema.binding(state.resolution, assignment.target)
+                if (binding.kind == .builtin) {
+                    state.cells[usize(assignment.target)].role = .expression
+                    state.cells[usize(assignment.target)].type = invalid_type(try diagnostics.add(
+                        state.diagnostics, .invalid_assignment_target, ast.node_span(tree, assignment.target),
+                    ))
+                } else {
+                    try collect_expression(state, assignment.target)
+                }
+                state.collecting_assignment = true
+                try collect_expression(state, assignment.value)
+                state.collecting_assignment = false
+                try depend(state, assignment.target, statement)
+                try depend(state, assignment.value, statement)
+            }
+            .while_stmt: {
+                loop :: ast.while_stmt(tree, statement)
+                state.cells[usize(statement)].role = .while_stmt
+                state.cells[usize(statement)].type = Type{ kind = .void }
+                try collect_expression(state, loop.condition)
+                try depend(state, loop.condition, statement)
+                try collect_block(state, loop.body, return_annotation)
+                try depend(state, loop.body, id)
+            }
             .invalid: collect_invalid(state, statement)
         }
         source :: if (ast.stmt_kind(tree, statement) == .expression) ast.statement_expr(tree, statement) else statement
@@ -501,6 +581,7 @@ collect_expression proc(state @mut State, id ast.NodeId) void ! (mem.AllocError
     if (state.cells[usize(id)].role != .none) return
     tree :: state.tree
     state.cells[usize(id)].role = .expression
+    state.cells[usize(id)].assignment_value = state.collecting_assignment
     match ast.expr_kind(tree, id) {
         .literal_int: {
             state.cells[usize(id)].numeric = true
@@ -641,11 +722,39 @@ fail proc(state @mut State, id ast.NodeId, code diagnostics.Code, span ast.Span)
     state.types[usize(id)] = invalid_type(try diagnostics.add(state.diagnostics, code, span))
 }
 
+@hide:file
+mutable_target proc(state @State, id ast.NodeId) bool {
+    binding :: sema.binding(state.resolution, id)
+    if (binding.kind != .declaration) return false
+    target :: binding.data.declaration
+    if (state.cells[usize(target)].role != .declaration or !state.cells[usize(target)].local) return false
+    return ast.statement_decl(state.tree, target).mutability == .variable
+}
+
+@hide:file
+same_signature proc(state @State, left, right ast.NodeId) bool {
+    tree :: state.tree
+    if (ast.function_param_count(tree, left) != ast.function_param_count(tree, right)) return false
+    left_result :: ast.function_decl(tree, left).return_type
+    right_result :: ast.function_decl(tree, right).return_type
+    if (state.types[usize(left_result)].kind != state.types[usize(right_result)].kind) return false
+    for (0..ast.function_param_count(tree, left)) |i| {
+        left_param :: ast.function_param(tree, left, i)
+        right_param :: ast.function_param(tree, right, i)
+        if (state.types[usize(left_param)].kind != state.types[usize(right_param)].kind) return false
+    }
+    return true
+}
+
 @hide:file
 compatible proc(state @mut State, value ast.NodeId, expected Type) void ! (mem.AllocError | diagnostics.CapacityError) {
     actual :: state.types[usize(value)]
     if (actual.kind == .invalid or expected.kind == .invalid) return
-    if (actual.kind != expected.kind) try fail(state, value, .type_mismatch, ast.node_span(state.tree, value))
+    if (actual.kind != expected.kind) {
+        try fail(state, value, .type_mismatch, ast.node_span(state.tree, value))
+    } else if (actual.kind == .function and !same_signature(state, actual.function, expected.function)) {
+        try fail(state, value, .type_mismatch, ast.node_span(state.tree, value))
+    }
 }
 
 @hide:file
@@ -659,6 +768,12 @@ validate proc(state @mut State, id ast.NodeId) void ! (mem.AllocError | diagnost
             }
             if (declaration.type) |type| try compatible(state, declaration.initializer, state.types[usize(type)])
         }
+        .assignment_stmt: {
+            assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(tree, id)
+            if (mutable_target(state, assignment.target)) {
+                try compatible(state, assignment.value, state.types[usize(assignment.target)])
+            }
+        }
         .return_stmt: {
             statement :: ast.return_stmt(tree, id)
             expected :: state.types[usize(state.cells[usize(id)].return_annotation)]
diff --git a/source/sema/check/check.test.hon b/source/sema/check/check.test.hon
index 8f376a9..1b11490 100644
--- a/source/sema/check/check.test.hon
+++ b/source/sema/check/check.test.hon
@@ -968,3 +968,284 @@ analyzes_return_paths_after_trap_propagation_without_poisoning_signatures test {
     try testing.expect_equal(2, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .missing_return))
     try testing.expect_equal(1, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .condition_not_bool))
 }
+
+assignments_preserve_established_types_and_contextualize_numeric_values test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `take_float proc(value float) int { return 1 }
+        `main proc() void {
+        `    number := 0
+        `    number = 1.5
+        `    number = number + 1.5
+        `    number = take_float(number)
+        `    observed :: number
+        `    quotient float := 0
+        `    quotient = 3 / 2
+        `    inferred := 0
+        `    context float :: inferred
+        `    inferred = 5 / 2
+        `    rigid int := 1
+        `    quotient = rigid
+        `    flag := true
+        `    flag = false
+        `    text := "before"
+        `    text = "after"
+        `}
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parser.parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+    resolution := try sema.resolve(mem.c_allocator, &tree, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer sema.deinit(&resolution)
+    try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    result := try check(mem.c_allocator, &tree, &resolution, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer deinit(&result)
+
+    body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 1)).body
+    number :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 0)
+    observed :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 4)
+    quotient :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 5)
+    inferred :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 7)
+    rigid :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 10)
+    declarations [3]ast.NodeId :: [number, observed, rigid]
+    for declarations |id| {
+        try expect_kind(&result, id, .int)
+        try expect_kind(&result, ast.statement_decl(&tree, id).initializer, .int)
+    }
+    try expect_kind(&result, quotient, .float)
+    try expect_kind(&result, inferred, .float)
+    bad_values [2]usize :: [1, 11]
+    for bad_values |index| {
+        statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, index)
+        assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, statement)
+        original :: try expect_error(&result, &diagnostic_store, assignment.value, .type_mismatch, ast.node_span(&tree, assignment.value))
+        try testing.expect_equal(original, type_of(&result, statement).diagnostic)
+        expected :: if (index == 1) TypeKind.int else TypeKind.float
+        try expect_kind(&result, assignment.target, expected)
+    }
+    arithmetic_statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 2)
+    arithmetic :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, arithmetic_statement)
+    original :: try expect_error(&result, &diagnostic_store, arithmetic.value, .invalid_operand, ast.node_span(&tree, arithmetic.value))
+    try testing.expect_equal(original, type_of(&result, arithmetic_statement).diagnostic)
+    try expect_kind(&result, arithmetic.target, .int)
+    try expect_kind(&result, ast.binary_expr(&tree, arithmetic.value).left, .int)
+    call_statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 3)
+    call :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, call_statement)
+    argument :: ast.call_arg(&tree, call.value, 0)
+    call_error :: try expect_error(&result, &diagnostic_store, argument, .type_mismatch, ast.node_span(&tree, argument))
+    try testing.expect_equal(call_error, type_of(&result, call_statement).diagnostic)
+    try expect_kind(&result, call.target, .int)
+    divisions [2]usize :: [6, 9]
+    for divisions |index| {
+        statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, index)
+        assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, statement)
+        division :: ast.binary_expr(&tree, assignment.value)
+        try expect_kind(&result, statement, .void)
+        try expect_kind(&result, assignment.target, .float)
+        try expect_kind(&result, assignment.value, .float)
+        try expect_kind(&result, division.left, .float)
+        try expect_kind(&result, division.right, .float)
+    }
+    scalar_assignments [2]usize :: [13, 15]
+    for scalar_assignments |index| {
+        statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, index)
+        assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, statement)
+        expected :: if (index == 13) TypeKind.bool else TypeKind.string
+        try expect_kind(&result, statement, .void)
+        try expect_kind(&result, assignment.target, expected)
+        try expect_kind(&result, assignment.value, expected)
+    }
+    try testing.expect_equal(3, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .type_mismatch))
+    try testing.expect_equal(1, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .invalid_operand))
+    try testing.expect_equal(0, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .integer_division))
+}
+
+assignment_target_errors_preserve_bindings_and_independent_rhs_diagnostics test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `global := 1
+        `named proc() void {}
+        `main proc(parameter int) void {
+        `    constant :: 1
+        `    constant = 2
+        `    parameter = 2
+        `    global = 2
+        `    named = named
+        `    int = 2
+        `    absent = other_missing
+        `    constant = -false
+        `}
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parser.parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+    resolution := try sema.resolve(mem.c_allocator, &tree, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer sema.deinit(&resolution)
+    result := try check(mem.c_allocator, &tree, &resolution, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer deinit(&result)
+
+    function :: ast.package_decl(&tree, 2)
+    body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, function).body
+    for usize(1)..usize(6) |index| {
+        statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, index)
+        assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, statement)
+        _ = try expect_error(&result, &diagnostic_store, statement, .invalid_assignment_target, ast.node_span(&tree, assignment.target))
+        expected :: if (index == 4) TypeKind.function else TypeKind.int
+        try expect_kind(&result, assignment.value, expected)
+        if (index != 5) try testing.expect(type_of(&result, assignment.target).kind != .invalid)
+    }
+    unknown_statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 6)
+    unknown :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, unknown_statement)
+    target_error :: sema.binding(&resolution, unknown.target).data.diagnostic
+    value_error :: sema.binding(&resolution, unknown.value).data.diagnostic
+    try testing.expect(target_error != value_error)
+    try testing.expect_equal(target_error, type_of(&result, unknown.target).diagnostic)
+    try testing.expect_equal(target_error, type_of(&result, unknown_statement).diagnostic)
+    try testing.expect_equal(value_error, type_of(&result, unknown.value).diagnostic)
+    independent_statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 7)
+    independent :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, independent_statement)
+    _ = try expect_error(&result, &diagnostic_store, independent.value, .invalid_operand, ast.node_span(&tree, independent.value))
+    _ = try expect_error(&result, &diagnostic_store, independent_statement, .invalid_assignment_target, ast.node_span(&tree, independent.target))
+    try expect_kind(&result, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 0), .int)
+    try expect_kind(&result, ast.function_param(&tree, function, 0), .int)
+    try expect_kind(&result, ast.package_decl(&tree, 0), .int)
+    try expect_kind(&result, ast.package_decl(&tree, 1), .function)
+    try testing.expect_equal(6, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .invalid_assignment_target))
+    try testing.expect_equal(2, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .unknown_name))
+    try testing.expect_equal(0, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .type_not_value))
+}
+
+function_assignment_checks_complete_signatures_without_retargeting_calls test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `first proc(a int) int { return a }
+        `same proc(renamed int) int { return renamed + 1 }
+        `wrong_parameter proc(a float) int { return 1 }
+        `wrong_result proc(a int) bool { return true }
+        `wrong_count proc() int { return 2 }
+        `main proc() int {
+        `    chosen := first
+        `    chosen = same
+        `    chosen = wrong_parameter
+        `    chosen = wrong_result
+        `    chosen = wrong_count
+        `    answer :: chosen(7)
+        `    return answer
+        `}
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parser.parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+    resolution := try sema.resolve(mem.c_allocator, &tree, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer sema.deinit(&resolution)
+    try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    result := try check(mem.c_allocator, &tree, &resolution, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer deinit(&result)
+
+    first :: ast.package_decl(&tree, 0)
+    body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 5)).body
+    chosen :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 0)
+    try expect_kind(&result, chosen, .function)
+    try testing.expect_equal(first, type_of(&result, chosen).function)
+    try expect_kind(&result, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 1), .void)
+    for usize(2)..usize(5) |index| {
+        statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, index)
+        assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, statement)
+        original :: try expect_error(&result, &diagnostic_store, assignment.value, .type_mismatch, ast.node_span(&tree, assignment.value))
+        try testing.expect_equal(original, type_of(&result, statement).diagnostic)
+        try expect_kind(&result, assignment.target, .function)
+        try testing.expect_equal(first, type_of(&result, assignment.target).function)
+    }
+    answer :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 5)
+    call :: ast.statement_decl(&tree, answer).initializer
+    try expect_kind(&result, answer, .int)
+    try expect_kind(&result, call, .int)
+    try testing.expect_equal(first, type_of(&result, ast.call_expr(&tree, call).callee).function)
+    try testing.expect_equal(3, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .type_mismatch))
+    try testing.expect_equal(0, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .argument_count_mismatch))
+}
+
+while_checks_nested_bodies_without_claiming_a_zero_iteration_return test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `missing proc() int { while true { return 1 } }
+        `bad_body proc() int { while false { -"bad" } }
+        `continues proc() int {
+        `    while false { -"bad" }
+        `    return 7
+        `}
+        `bad_condition proc() int { while 1 { -"bad" } }
+        `unknown_condition proc() int { while absent { missing_body } }
+        `nested proc() void {
+        `    counter := 2
+        `    while counter > 0 {
+        `        inner := 1
+        `        while inner > 0 {
+        `            inner = inner - 1
+        `            counter = counter - 1
+        `        }
+        `    }
+        `}
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parser.parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+    resolution := try sema.resolve(mem.c_allocator, &tree, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer sema.deinit(&resolution)
+    result := try check(mem.c_allocator, &tree, &resolution, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer deinit(&result)
+
+    for usize(0)..usize(2) |index| {
+        body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, index)).body
+        _ = try expect_error(&result, &diagnostic_store, body, .missing_return, ast.node_span(&tree, body))
+        try expect_kind(&result, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 0), .void)
+    }
+    continues_body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 2)).body
+    loop_statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, continues_body, 0)
+    loop :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, loop_statement)
+    invalid_body :: ast.statement_expr(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, loop.body, 0))
+    original :: try expect_error(&result, &diagnostic_store, invalid_body, .invalid_operand, ast.node_span(&tree, invalid_body))
+    try testing.expect_equal(original, type_of(&result, loop.body).diagnostic)
+    try testing.expect_equal(original, type_of(&result, continues_body).diagnostic)
+    try expect_kind(&result, loop_statement, .void)
+    try expect_kind(&result, ast.block_statement(&tree, continues_body, 1), .void)
+    bad_condition_body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 3)).body
+    bad_condition_statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, bad_condition_body, 0)
+    condition :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, bad_condition_statement).condition
+    condition_error :: try expect_error(&result, &diagnostic_store, condition, .condition_not_bool, ast.node_span(&tree, condition))
+    try testing.expect_equal(condition_error, type_of(&result, bad_condition_statement).diagnostic)
+    unknown_body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 4)).body
+    unknown_statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, unknown_body, 0)
+    unknown :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, unknown_statement).condition
+    try testing.expect_equal(sema.binding(&resolution, unknown).data.diagnostic, type_of(&result, unknown_statement).diagnostic)
+    nested_body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, ast.package_decl(&tree, 5)).body
+    try expect_kind(&result, nested_body, .none)
+    outer_loop :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, nested_body, 1))
+    inner_loop :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, outer_loop.body, 1))
+    for usize(0)..usize(2) |index| {
+        statement :: ast.block_statement(&tree, inner_loop.body, index)
+        assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, statement)
+        try expect_kind(&result, statement, .void)
+        try expect_kind(&result, assignment.target, .int)
+        try expect_kind(&result, assignment.value, .int)
+    }
+    try testing.expect_equal(2, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .missing_return))
+    try testing.expect_equal(1, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .condition_not_bool))
+    try testing.expect_equal(3, code_count(&diagnostic_store, .invalid_operand))
+}
diff --git a/source/sema/resolve.hon b/source/sema/resolve.hon
index 9af2ab9..4095973 100644
--- a/source/sema/resolve.hon
+++ b/source/sema/resolve.hon
@@ -209,6 +209,16 @@ resolve_block proc(state @mut State, scope @mut Scope, id ast.NodeId) void ! (me
                 try resolve_arm(state, scope, conditional.then_block)
                 if (conditional.else_block) |other| try resolve_arm(state, scope, other)
             }
+            .assignment_stmt: {
+                assignment :: ast.assignment_stmt(tree, statement)
+                try resolve_expr(state, scope, assignment.target)
+                try resolve_expr(state, scope, assignment.value)
+            }
+            .while_stmt: {
+                loop :: ast.while_stmt(tree, statement)
+                try resolve_expr(state, scope, loop.condition)
+                try resolve_arm(state, scope, loop.body)
+            }
             .invalid: resolve_invalid(state, statement)
         }
     }
diff --git a/source/sema/resolve.test.hon b/source/sema/resolve.test.hon
index 8f97417..4d61e30 100644
--- a/source/sema/resolve.test.hon
+++ b/source/sema/resolve.test.hon
@@ -366,3 +366,76 @@ resolves_conditional_arm_scopes_without_leaks_or_shadowing test {
     try testing.expect_equal(binding(&resolution, shadow).data.diagnostic, binding(&resolution, use).data.diagnostic)
     try testing.expect_equal(4, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
 }
+
+resolves_loop_assignments_in_lexical_scopes_with_forward_local_bindings test {
+    strpool.strings = strpool.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer strpool.deinit(&strpool.strings)
+    diagnostic_store := diagnostics.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer diagnostics.deinit(&diagnostic_store)
+    source ::
+        `main proc(flag bool) void {
+        `    outer := 2
+        `    while flag {
+        `        later = outer
+        `        later := 1
+        `        while later > 0 {
+        `            outer = later
+        `            inner := later
+        `        }
+        `        inner
+        `    }
+        `    while flag { later := 3 }
+        `    later = unknown_rhs
+        `    while flag {
+        `        outer := 1
+        `        outer = 2
+        `        bool := false
+        `    }
+        `}
+    scan_state := lexer.init(mem.c_allocator)
+    defer lexer.deinit(&scan_state)
+    try lexer.scan(&scan_state, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    tree := try parser.parse(mem.c_allocator, scan_state.tokens.items, source, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer ast.deinit(&tree)
+    try testing.expect_equal(0, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+    resolution := try resolve(mem.c_allocator, &tree, &diagnostic_store)
+    defer deinit(&resolution)
+
+    function :: ast.package_decl(&tree, 0)
+    body :: ast.function_decl(&tree, function).body
+    flag :: ast.function_param(&tree, function, 0)
+    outer :: ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 0)
+    first :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 1))
+    try testing.expect_equal(flag, binding(&resolution, first.condition).data.declaration)
+    forward :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, first.body, 0))
+    later :: ast.block_statement(&tree, first.body, 1)
+    try testing.expect_equal(BindingKind.declaration, binding(&resolution, forward.target).kind)
+    try testing.expect_equal(later, binding(&resolution, forward.target).data.declaration)
+    try testing.expect_equal(outer, binding(&resolution, forward.value).data.declaration)
+    nested :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, first.body, 2))
+    guard :: ast.binary_expr(&tree, nested.condition)
+    try testing.expect_equal(later, binding(&resolution, guard.left).data.declaration)
+    update :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, nested.body, 0))
+    try testing.expect_equal(outer, binding(&resolution, update.target).data.declaration)
+    try testing.expect_equal(later, binding(&resolution, update.value).data.declaration)
+    inner :: ast.block_statement(&tree, nested.body, 1)
+    try testing.expect_equal(later, binding(&resolution, ast.statement_decl(&tree, inner).initializer).data.declaration)
+    escaped_inner :: ast.statement_expr(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, first.body, 3))
+    try testing.expect_equal(BindingKind.invalid, binding(&resolution, escaped_inner).kind)
+    sibling :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 2))
+    sibling_local :: ast.block_statement(&tree, sibling.body, 0)
+    try testing.expect_equal(BindingKind.declaration, binding(&resolution, sibling_local).kind)
+    try testing.expect(sibling_local != later)
+    escaped :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 3))
+    try testing.expect_equal(BindingKind.invalid, binding(&resolution, escaped.target).kind)
+    try testing.expect_equal(BindingKind.invalid, binding(&resolution, escaped.value).kind)
+    try testing.expect(binding(&resolution, escaped.target).data.diagnostic != binding(&resolution, escaped.value).data.diagnostic)
+    forbidden :: ast.while_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, body, 4))
+    shadow :: ast.block_statement(&tree, forbidden.body, 0)
+    poisoned :: ast.assignment_stmt(&tree, ast.block_statement(&tree, forbidden.body, 1))
+    builtin :: ast.block_statement(&tree, forbidden.body, 2)
+    try testing.expect_equal(BindingKind.invalid, binding(&resolution, shadow).kind)
+    try testing.expect_equal(binding(&resolution, shadow).data.diagnostic, binding(&resolution, poisoned.target).data.diagnostic)
+    try testing.expect_equal(BindingKind.invalid, binding(&resolution, builtin).kind)
+    try testing.expect_equal(5, diagnostics.count(&diagnostic_store))
+}